Learning content management Universities

http://www.lms.unimelb.edu.au/

http://www.vu.edu.pk/

http://www.kettering.edu

http://www.londonexternal.ac.uk/

Learning Management Systems (LMS) paradigm as defined by Paris Avgeriou are "specialized Learning Technology Systems (IEEE LTSC, 2001a), based on the state-of-the-art Internet and WWW technologies in order to provide education and training following the open and distance learning". Most learning management systems have three types of user. First type is the student, second type is the teachers/tutor and the third type of user is the administrator. Over the years it has been seen that for the best delivery of the courseware every learning management system should have the following features;
􀂃 The ability to include text, documents, files of many types including Office, audio, video, and images
􀂃 A grade book
􀂃 The ability to insert links of various resources, both internet and intranet
􀂃 A section for the FAQs

Another important feature in imparting education from the academic point of view is the process of assignments. I believe that assignments are very important mode of imparting education to the students as it force them to utilize their knowledge in solving various problems, and in return their efforts are assessed and graded. The LMS has the facility to allow students to view the assignment statements given to them, see the marked assignments. i.e. the assignments are graded and commented by the teacher and are uploaded so that students may learn from their mistakes. They can also view the marks they score in each assignmen and the general comments made about solution provided by the students. After the assignment’s due date, the teaching faculty, upload its solution on LMS, so that students may learn the best possible way of solving the given problem.

A learning management system (LMS) is software for delivering, tracking and managing training. LMSs range from systems for managing training records to software for distributing courses over the Internet and offering features for online collaboration. In many instances, corporate training departments purchase LMSs to automate record-keeping as well as the registration of employees for classroom and online courses. Student self-service (e.g., self-registration on instructor-led training), training workflow (e.g., user notification, manager approval, wait-list management), the provision of on-line learning (e.g., Computer-Based Training, read & understand), on-line assessment, management of continuous professional education (CPE), collaborative learning (e.g., application sharing, discussion threads), and training resource management (e.g., instructors, facilities, equipment), are dimensions to Learning Management Systems.Most LMSs are web-based to facilitate access to learning content and administration. LMSs are used by regulated industries (e.g. financial services and biopharma) for compliance training

Learning Management System Features

NEW! Student progress tracking and controls.
NEW! Enhanced exam retake options.
Easy online exams and quizzes. Very powerful exam system.
Automatically generates customizable certificates for passing an exam
Certificates are PDF FILES* (or HTML) that can be saved and printed.
Easy content editing through your browser. No downloads required for instructors or students.
Visual hierarchical outline building tool
Designed to be used by non-technical people. No knowledge of HTML or programming needed
Browser based WYSIWYG content editing
Content can also include multimedia (e.g. Flash, Windows Media), PDF and PowerPoint presentations.
Built-in discussion forums
100% Browser based. Platform independent. Works in Internet Explorer, Netscape, Mozilla, and Firefox
Supports credit card processing for student registration
Very cost effective, flexible and customizable
All courses, content, exams, etc. are password protected and require registration for access
Registration system supports credit card transactionsOur browser-based, WYSIWYG HTML editor allows course content pages to be edited without any other software. Instructors can create rich, well-formatted web pages without any knowledge of HTML or FTP. For those who desire, web pages can be uploaded from other HTML editing applications. The look and feel of each course is determined by preset templates. Changing a template will instantly change a course's fonts, colors, and other display attributes. Custom settings can be set by entering style tags.

Online Exam and Quiz Software

Each course has a built-in database for exam questions. Instructors load the questions into the database then create exams and quizzes based on them. The exams and questions can be edited, deleted, and re-used anytime for a quick feature rich online examination system. Features include:
Questions can be multiple choice, true/false, short answer (fill in the blank), multiple answer (checkboxes), and essay.
Exams can be timed or untimed.
The system can automatically create exams by randomly choosing questions from your exam question database.
The system will randomly order the questions for each student.
Exams can be turned on or off and have a date range for each exam.
Multiple choice, true/false, and short answer questions are automatically graded.
Detailed score report breaks down student responses by category.
Students get instant results on automatically graded exams.
Students and instructors get instant results via e-mail.
For each question you can enter feedback that the student will get when reviewing the exam.
Control review options: review correct, incorrect, both, or neither.
Allow students to retake exams, limit total attempts and cap retake scores.
Automatically generates a numbered certificate of completion on successfully passing an exam. You customize the certificate.
The Certificate is a PDF file that can be customized in any way.
Instructors can "manually" grade and rescore an exam if necessary.
Exams are taken through the browser and requires no downloads or plugins.

Learning Managment System(continued)

Advanced Content Management

Our exclusive outline builder lets content experts create hierarchical outlines. Topics are presented to the student in a "tree-view" style hyperlinked and easy to understand outline.
CourseWebs contains a powerful content management system that lets the instructor quickly design and author course content. The content manager is built around an outline builder which easily creates hierarchical outlines. All of the content for this site can be edited in any browser
With each course you get complete control of the look and feel of your content. The 100% browser based interface allows courses to be constructed by and delivered to any computer connected to the internet. The course outliner tool lets you quickly enter course content into a hierarchical outline.
The outline consists of main topics, sub-topics, sub-sub-topics, etc.
Built in navigation on the student sides saves hours of course development time.
All content can be edited in the browser-based WYSIWYG editor using Internet Explorer, Firefox, Mozilla, and Netscape browsers.
No knowledge of HTML is required, however content can be pasted from HTML editors and word processors.
The look and feel (fonts, colors, etc.) of the entire course can be changed instantly using pre-defined templates. Or, specific settings can be entered for each course.

Advanced Content Editor

The WYSIWYG content editor lets instructors create rich presentations without any knowledge of HTML. Creating and formatting pages is as easy as using a word processor. Graphics and multimedia files can be uploaded directly from the browser without using any FTP programs. The editor makes it easy to insert multimedia files such as images, movies, sounds, Flash animations and more. Course content can also include pre-built presentations such as PowerPoint.

File Manager

The file manager lets instructors upload their own files to the server for students to access. These can be html files, application files (Word, Excel, etc.) or multimedia files such as images or movies (avi, RealVideo, Flash, etc.) The file manager lets the instructor create folders and upload

files through their browser without using any FTP software.

Discussion Forums

Unlimited number of forums.
Forums can be moderated.
Instructors can edit or delete posts and forums.
Advanced searching of posts.
Automatically e-mail notification when someone responds to a post.

The Learning Organization

Why the Interest in 'Learning Organizations'?
Basically, it's the search for the (unattainable) Holy Grail. Companies are seeking to improve existing products and services (continuous improvement), and innovation (breakthrough strategies). This has resulted in a plethora of initiatives such as TQM (Total Quality Management) and BPR (Business Process Reengineering). But companies are finding that such programmes succeed or fail depending on human factors, such as skills, attitudes and organisational culture. It also appears that many implementations are geared to highly specified processes, defined for anticipated situations. The current interest in the 'learning organisation' stems from the recognition that these initiatives, by themselves, often do not work. Something more is needed to:
Cope with rapid and unexpected changes where existing 'programmed' responses are inadequate
Provide flexibility to cope with dynamically changing situations
Allow front-line staff to respond with initiative based on customer needs vs. being constrained by business processes established for different circumstances
As various management writers put it:
"Organisations must develop a capacity for fast-paced innovation.. learn to love change" (Peters)
"As the competitive environment becomes more complex and variegate, the need for greater genetic variety - a broader range of managerial beliefs, and a greater repertoire of managerial actions - grows apace" (Hamel and Prahaled).
"Top companies seem to organise around people ..honouring these needs - feeling of control, something to believe in, challenge, lifelong learning, recognition" (Waterman)
With the pace of change ever quickening, the need to develop mechanisms for continuous learning and innovation is greater than ever.
Types of Learning
A learning organization is not about 'more training'. While training does help develop certain types of skill, a learning organisation involves the development of higher levels of knowledge and skill. We have developed a 4-level model:
Level 1.- Learning facts, knowledge, processes and procedures. Applies to known situations where changes are minor.
Level 2.- Learning new job skills that are transferable to other situations. Applies to new situations where existing responses need to be changed. Bringing in outside expertise is a useful tool here.
Level 3 - Learning to adapt. Applies to more dynamic situations where the solutions need developing. Experimentation, and deriving lessons from success and failure is the mode of learning here.
Level 4 - Learning to learn. Is about innovation and creativity; designing the future rather than merely adapting to it. This is where assumptions are challenged and knowledge is reframed.
Furthermore this model (or adaptation of it) can be applied at three levels - to the learning of individuals, of teams and of organisations. Organizations that achieve learning to Level 4 will "reinvent not just their organization but their industry" (Hamel and Prahaled in Competing for the Future)Characteristics of a Learning Organisation
Observation and research identifies four types of factor:
Learning Culture - an organizational climate that nurtures learning. There is a strong similarity with those characteristics associated with innovation.
Processes - processes that encourage interaction across boundaries. These are infrastructure, development and management processes, as opposed to business operational processes (the typical focus of many BPR initiatives).
Tools and Techniques - methods that aid individual and group learning, such as creativity and problem solving techniques.
Skills and Motivation - to learn and adapt.
Here are some additional points on the first three of these.A Learning Culture
Future, external orientation these organisations develop understanding of their environment; senior teams take time out to think about the future. Widespread use of external sources and advisors e.g. customers on planning teams.
Free exchange and flow of information - systems are in place to ensure that expertise is available where it is needed; individuals network extensively, crossing organisational boundaries to develop their knowledge and expertise.
Commitment to learning, personal development - support from top management; people at all levels encouraged to learn regularly; learning is rewarded. Time to think and learn (understanding, exploring, reflecting, developing)
Valuing people - ideas, creativity and "imaginative capabilities" are stimulated, made use of and developed. Diversity is recognised as a strength. Views can be challenged.
Climate of openness and trust - individuals are encouraged to develop ideas, to speak out, to challenge actions.
Learning from experience - learning from mistakes is often more powerful than learning from success. Failure is tolerated, provided lessons are learnt ("learning from fast failure" - Peters).
Key Management Processes
Strategic and Scenario Planning - approaches to planning that go beyond the numbers, encourage challenging assumptions, thinking 'outside of the box'. They also allocate a proportion of resources for experimentation.
Competitor Analysis - as part of a process of continuous monitoring and analysis of all key factor in the external environment, including technology and political factors. A coherent competitor analysis process that gathers information from multiple sources, sifts, analyses, refines, adds value and redistributes is evidence that the appropriate mechanisms are in place.
Information and Knowledge Management - using techniques to identify, audit, value (cost/benefit), develop and exploit information as a resource (known as IRM - information resources management); use of collaboration processes and groupware e.g. Lotus Notes, First Class to categorise and share expertise.
Capability Planning - profiling both qualitatively and quantitatively the competencies of the organisation. Profiling these on a matrix can be helpful to planning adjustment:
Team and Organisation development - the use of facilitators to help groups with work, job and organisation design and team development - reinforcing values, developing vision, cohesiveness and a climate of stretching goals, sharing and support
Performance Measurement - finding appropriate measures and indicators of performance; ones that provide a 'balanced scorecard' and encourage investment in learning (see, for example, Measuring Intellectual Capital).
Reward and Recognition Systems - processes and systems that recognize acquisition of new skills, team-work as well as individual effort, celebrate successes and accomplishments, and encourages continuous personal development.
Tools and Techniques
Too numerous to cover in detail, but include a wide range of learning and creativity skills in the following groups:
Inquiry - interviewing, seeking information
Creativity - brainstorming, associating ideas
Making sense of situations - organising information and thoughts
Making choices - deciding courses of action
Observing outcomes - recording, observation
Reframing knowledge - embedding new knowledge into mental models, memorizing
Collective (i.e. team and organizational) learning require skills for sharing information and knowledge, particularly implicit knowledge, assumptions and beliefs that are traditionally "beneath the surface". Key skills here are:
Communication, especially across organisational boundaries
Listening and observing
Mentoring and supporting colleagues
Taking a holistic perspective - seeing the team and organisation as a whole
Coping with challenge and uncertainty.

Advanced Distributed Learning

ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning) The ADL Initiative was established in 1997 to standardize and modernize training and education management and delivery. The Department of Defense (DoD) Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness (OUSD P&R) oversees the ADL Initiative. The vision of the ADL Initiative is to provide access to the highest-quality learning and performance aiding that can be tailored to individual needs and delivered cost-effectively, at the right time and in the right place.
The ADL Initiative developed SCORM and the ADL Registry. ADL uses structured and collaborative methods to convene multi-national groups from industry, academia, and government who develop the learning standards, tools, and content. For additional information regarding the ADL Initiative, SCORM, and the ADL Registry, refer to the following web sites: ADL Initiative and SCORM

Organiztional Chart

Management Skills

Robert Katz has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual.

1. Technical Skills
• The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized
expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.
2. Human Skills
• The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in
groups, describes human skills.
Many people are technically proficient but interpersonally incompetent
3. Conceptual Skills
1. The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations
2. Decision making, for example, requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives
that can correct them, evaluate those alternatives, and select the best one.

Skills Exhibited by an Effective Manager

1. Clarifies goals and objectives for everyone involved
2. Encourages participation, upward communication, and suggestions
3. Plans and organizes for an orderly work flow
4. Has technical and administrative expertise to answer organization-related questions
5. Facilitates work through team building, training, coaching and support

6. Provides feedback honestly and constructively
7. Keeps things moving by relying on schedules, deadlines, and helpful reminders
8. Controls details without being over-bearing
9. Applies reasonable pressure for goal accomplishment
10. Empowers and delegates key duties to others while maintaining goal clarity and commitment 11. Recognizes good performance with rewards and positive reinforcement

Management Skills

Robert Katz has identified three essential management skills: technical, human, and conceptual.
1. Technical Skills
• The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some specialized
expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.
2. Human Skills
• The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in
groups, describes human skills.
Many people are technically proficient but interpersonally incompetent
3. Conceptual Skills
1. The mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex situations
2. Decision making, for example, requires managers to spot problems, identify alternatives
that can correct them, evaluate those alternatives, and select the best one.

Skills Exhibited by an Effective Manager
1. Clarifies goals and objectives for everyone involved
2. Encourages participation, upward communication, and suggestions
3. Plans and organizes for an orderly work flow
4. Has technical and administrative expertise to answer organization-related questions
5. Facilitates work through team building, training, coaching and support

Management Roles

Managers can use their understanding of organizational behavior to improve their management skills. A skill is an ability to act in a way that allows a person to perform highly in her or his role. Managers need three types of skills: conceptual skills to analyze and diagnose a situation to distinguish between cause and effect;
human skills to understand, work with, lead, and control the behavior of individuals and groups; and technical skills, job-specific knowledge and techniques required to perform an organizational role.Effective managers need all three types of skills—conceptual, human, and technical. For example, entrepreneurs often are technically skilled but lack conceptual and human skills. Scientists who become managers have technical expertise, but low levels of human skills.
The ten roles can be grouped as being primarily concerned with interpersonal relationships, the transfer of information, and decision making.
1. Interpersonal roles
• Figurehead—duties that are ceremonial and symbolic in nature
• Leadership—hire, train, motivate, and discipline employees
• Liaison—contact outsiders who provide the manager with information. These may be individuals or
groups inside or outside the organization.
2. Informational Roles
• Monitor—collect information from organizations and institutions outside their own
• Disseminator—a conduit to transmit information to organizational members
• Spokesperson—represent the organization to outsiders
3. Decisional Roles
• Entrepreneur—managers initiate and oversee new projects that will improve their organization’s
performance
• Disturbance handlers—take corrective action in response to unforeseen problems
• Resource allocators—responsible for allocating human, physical, and monetary resources
• Negotiator role—discuss issues and bargain with other units to gain advantages for their own
unit

Components of an Organization

The environment influences organizational design. When uncertainty exists, the ability to respond
quickly and creatively is important; when the environment is stable, an organization improves
performance by making attitudes and behaviors predictable. Creativity and predictability are fostered
by certain structures and cultures.
Task - an organization’s mission, purpose, or goal for existing
People - the human resources of the organization
Structure - the manner in which an organization’s work is designed at the micro
level; how departments, divisions, & the overall organization are
designed at the macro level
Technology - the intellectual and mechanical processes used by an organization to
transform inputs into products or services that meet
Formal vs. Informal Organization
Formal Organization - the part of the organization that has legitimacy and
official recognition
Informal Organization - the unofficial part of the organization
How does an Organization Create Value?

Why do Organizations Exist?
􀂃 To increase specialization and division of labor
􀂃 Use large-scale technology
􀂃 Manage the external environment
􀂃 Economize on transaction costs
􀂃 Exert power and control
Factors Affecting Organizations
􀂃 Organizational Environment
􀂃 Technological Environment
Organizational Process
The organizational environment is the set of resources surrounding an organization, including inputs (e.g., raw materials and skilled employees); resources to transform inputs (e.g., computers, buildings, and machinery); and resources (e.g., customers) Organizations compete for the scarce, needed
resources. There is much uncertainty about obtaining needed resources. Organizations design their structures and cultures in ways to secure and protect needed resources. Technology is the second design contingency an organization faces. Technology refers to the combination of human resources (skills, knowledge abilities, and techniques) and raw materials and equipment (machines, computers, and tools) that workers use to convert raw materials into goods and services. Each job is part of an organization’s technology. An organization must design its structure and culture to allow for the operation of technology. Organizational processes develop plans of actions for competing successfully by obtaining resources and outperforming competitors. These plans of actions are strategies. To attract customers, for example, organizations can pursue the following strategies.
Organizational change Organizational change is an ongoing process that has important implications for organizational performance and for the well-being of an organization’s members. An organization and its members must be constantly on the alert for changes from within the organization and from the outside environment and they must learn how to adjust to change quickly and effectively. Often, the revolutionary types of change that result from restructuring and reengineering are necessary only because an organization and its managers ignored or were unaware of changes in the environment and did not make incremental changes as needed. The more an organization changes, the easier and more effective the change process becomes. Developing and managing a plan for change are vital to an organization’s success.

Context
The contextual factors that appear
to be most significantly are
related to team performance:
• Adequate resources:
a. All work teams rely on resources
outside the group to sustain it.
b. A scarcity of resources directly
reduces the ability of the team to
perform its job effectively.
c. As one set of
researchers concluded, “perhaps one of the most important characteristics of an
effective work group is the support the group receives from the organization.’’
• Leadership and structure:
a. Agreeing on the specifics of work and how they fit together to integrate individual skills
requires team leadership and structure.
b. Leadership is not always needed. Self-managed work teams often perform better than
teams with formally appointed leaders.
c. On traditionally managed teams, we find that two factors seem influence team
performance. Leaders who expect good things from their team are more likely to get
them!
• Climate of Trust:
a. Members of effective teams trust each other and exhibit trust in their leaders.
b. When members trust each other they are more willing to take risks.
c. When members trust their leadership they are more willing to commit to their leader’s
goals and decisions.
• Performance evaluation and reward systems:
a. How do you get team members to be both individually and jointly accountable? The
traditional, individually oriented evaluation and reward system must be modified to
reflect team performance.
b. Individual performance evaluations, fixed hourly wages, individual incentives are not
consistent with the development of high-performance teams.

c. Management should consider group-based appraisals, profit sharing, gainsharing, smallgroup
incentives, and other system modifications that will reinforce team effort and
commitment.

The Communication Process

Context
• Physical – where communication takes place, the environment,
the distance between participants, seating, time of day • Social – the nature of the
relationship
• Historical – the background of previous communication
• Psychological – the moods and feelings
• Cultural – the set of beliefs, values, and norms that are shared by a large group of people
Participants
Sender: the individual, group, or organization that needs or wants to share information with another
individual, group, or organization to communicate
Receiver: the individual, group, or organization for which the information is intended
A sender might be a supervisor with instructions about performing a task and a receiver might be a new
worker.
Messages
The information the sender needs or wants to share with other people. Effective messages are clear and
complete. A message is clear if it is easily interpreted or understood. A message is complete if it contains the
information to achieve a common understanding between the sender and the receiver. If a sender is vague or
unsure about the message, communication is ineffective.
Encoding
“Translating the message into symbols or language that the receiver can understand”

A supervisor sends a message about policy changes to subordinates by encoding it in a memo.
Senders must have basic writing and oral communication skills, which many employees lack. A sender must
use words the receiver understands. Jargon, specialized language of members of a profession or occupation,
affects good communication. Although jargon facilitates communication because a single term describes a
complex idea, it leads to ineffective communication when receivers are outside the occupation or profession.

Power

Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in
accordance with A’s wishes.
• Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential.
• Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency.
• The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater is A’s power in the relationship.
• Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the importance that B places
on the alternative(s) that A controls.
• A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.

Concept of Power
Power - the ability to influence another person Influence - the process of
affecting the thoughts, behavior, & feelings of another person
Authority - the right to influence another person
Coercive Power:
• The coercive power base is being dependent on fear.
• It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such as the
infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of movement, or the
controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.
• At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss, suspend, or demote
B, assuming that B values his or her job.
• Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner that B
finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.
Reward Power:
• The opposite of coercive power is reward power.
• People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who can distribute
rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those others.
• These rewards can be anything that another person values.
• Coercive power and reward power are actually counterparts of each other.
a. If you can remove something of positive value from another or inflict something of negative
value upon him/her, you have coercive power over that person.
b. If you can give someone something of positive value or remove something of negative
value, you have reward power over that person.
Legitimate Power:
• In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access power is one’s structural position.
It represents the power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy.
• Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
• Legitimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It includes
acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an organization.
Charismatic Power:
• Is an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and interpersonal
style.
• Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks, demonstrate
follower sensitivity, etc.

Expert Power:
• Expert power is "influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge."
• Expertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has become more
technological. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly dependent on experts
to achieve goals.

Organizational Factors Which Contribute to Political Behavior

Types of organizational politics
Managing Organizational Politics
􀂃 Reduce System Uncertainty
􀂃 Reduce Competition
􀂃 Break Existing Political Fiefdoms
Organizational politics should support organizational
interests, not individual interests. The CEO possesses
legitimate power over all other managers and has
primary responsibility for managing politics and
controlling political contests. The CEO must balance
power to avoid power struggles that distract the
organization from achieving goals. With a balance of
power, no manager or coalition becomes strong
enough to threaten organizational interests.
Managing Political Behavior
• Maintain open communication
• Clarify performance expectations
• Use participative management
• Encourage cooperation among work groups
• Manage scarce resources well
• Provide a supportive organizational climate

The issue of “who wins?”

– Lose-lose conflict.
• Occurs when nobody gets what he or she wants.
• Avoidance, accommodation or smoothing, and compromise are forms of lose-lose
conflict.
•
– Win-lose conflict.
• One part achieves its desires at the expense and to the exclusion of the other party’s
desires.
• Competition and authoritative command are forms of win-lose conflict.
– Win-win conflict.
• Both parties achieve their desires.
• Collaboration or problem solving are forms of win-win conflict.

Organiztional Conflict

"a process which begins when one party perceives that the other is frustrated, or is about to
frustrate, some concern of his (or her).
•Perceived by the parties

•Parties are in opposition to one another
•At least one party is blocking the goal attainment of the other party
•Goals can be tangible or psychological
–Money
–Task Achievement
–Happiness

Types of Conflict
Task conflict
Conflict over content and goals of the work
Relationship conflict
Conflict based on interpersonal relationships
Process conflict
Conflict over how work gets done
Sources of conflict
•Organizational hierarchy
•Competition for scarce
resources
•Self-image & stereotypical
views of others
•Differing goals & objectives
•Failures & resultant blame
fixing
•Poor coordination of
activities
Conflict Management Styles
Avoiding - deliberate decision to take no action on a conflict or to stay out of a conflict
Accommodating - concern that the other party’s goals be met but relatively unconcerned with getting
own way
Competing - satisfying own interests; willing to do so at other party’s expense
Compromising - each party gives up something to reach a solution
Collaborating - arriving at a solution agreeable to all through open & thorough discussion

The Process of Negotiation

1. Preparation and planning:
• Do your homework. What is the nature of the conflict? What is the history leading up to this
negotiation? Who is involved, and what are their perceptions of the conflict? What do you want
from the negotiation? What are your goals?
• You also want to prepare an assessment of what you think the other party to your negotiation’s
goals are.
a. When you can anticipate your opponent’s position, you are better equipped to counter his or
her arguments with the facts and figures that support your position.
• Once you have gathered your information, use it to develop a strategy.
• Determine your and the other side’s Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA).
a. Your BATNA determines the lowest value acceptable to you for a negotiated agreement.
b. Any offer you receive that is higher than your BATNA is better than an impasse.
2. Definition of ground rules:
• Who will do the negotiating? Where will it take place? What time constraints, if any, will
apply?
• To what issues will negotiation be limited? Will there be a specific procedure to follow if an
impasse is reached?
• During this phase, the parties will also exchange their initial proposals or demands.
3. Clarification and justification:
• When initial positions have been exchanged, explain, amplify, clarify, bolster, and justify your
original demands
• This need not be confrontational.
• You might want to provide the other party with any documentation that helps support your
position.
4. Bargaining and problem solving:
• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying to hash out an
agreement.
• Concessions will undoubtedly need to be made by both parties.
5. Closure and implementation:
• The final step—formalizing the agreement that has been worked out and developing any
procedures that are necessary for implementation and monitoring
• Major negotiations will require hammering
out the specifics in a formal contract.
• For most cases, however, closure of the
negotiation process is nothing more formal
than a handshake.

Organizational Structure and Design

Organizational Structure:
– The formal pattern of how people and jobs are
grouped in an organization.
Organizational Design
– The decisions and actions that result in
organizational structure.
What Determines Organizational Structure?
• To what degree are tasks subdivided into separate jobs?
• On what basis will jobs be grouped together?
• To whom do individuals and groups report?
• How many individuals can a manager efficiently and effectively direct?
• Where does decision-making authority lie?
• To what degree will there be rules and regulations to direct employees and managers?
The Basics of Organizational Structure
• Organizational structure defines how job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated.
• The organization chart is a visual representation of this division, grouping, and coordination.
Early in the twentieth century, Henry Ford used this concept in an assembly line where every Ford
worker was assigned a specific, repetitive task. By breaking jobs into small standardized tasks, which
could be performed over and over again, Ford was able to produce cars at the rate of one every 10
seconds, while using relatively low-skilled workers.
Today we use the term work specialization to describe the degree to which tasks in an organization are
divided into separate jobs. The essence of work specialization is that an entire job is not done by one
individual but instead is broken down into steps, and each step is completed by a different person.
Individual employees specialize in doing part of an activity rather than the entire activity.

CAREER

Career can be defined as a general course of action a person chooses to pursue throughout his or her working life.

I. Career planning
Career planning is an ongoing process through which an individual sets career goals and identifies the
means to achieve them. The process by which individuals plan their life’s work is referred to as career
planning. Through career planning, a person evaluates his or her own abilities and interests, considers
alternative career opportunities, establishes career goals, and plans practical developmental activities.
Usually, career planning programs are expected to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
1. More effective development of available talent.
2. Self-appraisal opportunities for employees considering new or nontraditional career paths.
3. More efficient development of human resources within and among divisions and/or geographic
locations.
4. A demonstration of a tangible commitment to EEO and affirmative action.
5. Satisfaction of employees’ personal development needs.
6. Improvement of performance through on-the-job training experiences provided by horizontal
and vertical career moves.
7. Increased employee loyalty and motivation, leading to decreased turnover.
8. A method of determining training and development needs.
􀂃 Individual career planning—Career planning begins with self-understanding. Then,
the person is in a position to establish realistic goals and determine what to do to
achieve these goals. Learning about oneself is referred to as self-assessment. Some
useful tools include a strength/weakness balance sheet and a likes and dislikes survey.
1. Strength/weakness balance sheet: A self-evaluation procedure assists people
in becoming aware of their strengths and weaknesses.
2. Likes and dislikes survey: A procedure that assists individuals in recognizing
restrictions they place on themselves.
􀂃 Career Assessment On The Web—The Web has numerous tests and assessments sites
available to assist job seekers.
􀂃 Organizational Career Planning—The process of establishing career paths within a
firm.

II. Career Paths
Career paths have historically focused on upward mobility within a particular occupation. One of four
types of career paths may be used: traditional, network, lateral, and dual.

a. Traditional Career Path—An employee progresses vertically upward in the
organization from one specific job to the next.
b. Network Career Path—A method of career pathing that contains both a vertical
sequence of jobs and a series of horizontal opportunities.
c. Lateral Skill Path—Traditionally, a career path was viewed as moving upward to
higher levels of management in the organization. The availability of the previous two
options has diminished considerably in recent years. But this does not mean that an
individual has to remain in the same job for life. There are often lateral moves within
the firm that can be taken to allow an employee to become revitalized and find new
challenges.
d. Dual-Career Path— A career-path method, that recognizes that technical specialists
can and should be allowed to continue to contribute their expertise to a company
without having to become managers.
e. Adding Value To Retain Present Job—Regardless of the career path pursued, today’s
workers need to develop a plan whereby they are viewed as continually adding value to
the organization. If employees cannot add value, the company does not need them, and
much of the evolving work environments cannot use them either. Workers must
anticipate what tools will be needed for success in the future and obtain these skills.
These workers must look across company lines to other organizations to determine what
skills are transferable, and then go and get them. Essentially, today’s workers must
manage their own careers as never before.
f. Demotion—Demotions have long been associated with failure, but limited promotional
opportunities in the future and the fast pace of technological change may make them
more legitimate career options.

III. Career Development
A formal approach taken by an organization to help people acquire the skills and experiences needed to
perform current and future jobs is termed as career development. Company’s policies especially policies
regarding promotion, counseling the employees, opportunities to excel in future help employees to
develop their career. Consist of skills, education and experiences as well as behavioral modification and
refinement techniques that allow individuals to work better and add value.
Career development is an ongoing organized and formalized effort that recognizes people as a vital
organizational resource. It differs from training in that it has a wider focus, longer time frame, and
broader scope. The goal of training is improvement in performance; the goal of development is
enrichment and more capable workers.
Recently, career development has come to be seen as a means for meeting both organizational and
employee needs, as opposed to solely meeting the needs of the organization as it had done in the past.
Now, organizations see career development as a way of preventing job burnout, providing career
information to employees, improving the quality of work lives and meeting affirmative action goals.
That is, career development must be seen as a key business strategy if an organization wants to survive
in an increasingly competitive and global business environment.

JOB ANALYSIS

Job Analysis is the SYSTEMATIC process of collecting and making judgments about all the important
information related to a job.

Job analysis outcomes
􀀪 Job description
􀀪 Job specification
􀀪 Job evaluation

Job Analysis

Job analysis is the procedure through which you determine the duties and nature of the jobs and the
kinds of people who should be hired for them. You can utilize the information it provides to write job
descriptions and job specifications, which are utilized in recruitment and selection, compensation,
performance appraisal, and training.
I. Steps in Job Analysis
Job Analysis process has following steps:
a. Identify how the information will be used because that will determine what data will be
collected and how it should be collected. Interviewing and position analysis
questionnaire are some examples of data collection techniques.
b. Review relevant background information, such as organization charts, process charts,
and job descriptions.
c. Select representative positions to analyze because there may be too many similar jobs to
analyze, and it may not be necessary to analyze them all.
d. Analyze the job by collecting data on job activities, required employee behaviors,
working conditions, and human traits and abilities needed to perform the job.
e. Review and verify the job analysis information with job incumbents to confirm that it is
factually correct and complete.
f. Develop a job description and job specification from the job analysis information.

a. Job description
The job description is a document that provides information regarding the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of the job. Job description takes on an even greater importance under the
Americans with Disabilities Act because the description of essential job functions may be
critical to a defense regarding reasonable accommodation.
1. Job Identification – contains the job title, the FLSA status, date, and possible space to
indicate who approved the description, the location of the job, the immediate
supervisor’s title, salary and/or pay scale.
2. Job Summary – should describe the general nature of the job, and includes only its
major functions or activities.
3. Relationships – occasionally a relationships statement is included. It shows the
jobholders’ relationships with others inside and outside the organization.
4. Responsibilities and Duties – The Department of Labor’s Dictionary of Occupational
Titles can be used for itemizing the job’s duties and responsibilities.
5. Standards of Performance – states the standards the employee is expected to achieve
under each of the job description’s main duties and responsibilities.
b. Job specification
Minimum acceptable qualifications that a person should possess to perform the job are
included in the job specification. Some of the items often included are requirements for
education, experience, personality, and physical abilities.
c. Job evaluation
In Job Evaluation process the worth of job is identified based upon job comparability and
according to worth, importance of job and relative value Compensation is designed and
selected.

STRESS AND MANAGING STRESS

Overview

Stress affects individual well-being and has the potential to affect the extent to which individuals and
organizations achieve their goals and perform at a high level. Stress is bound up with workers’ personal lives;
thus the study of stress also entails exploring the nature of work-life linkages.
People experience stress when they fact opportunities or threats that they perceive as important and
also perceive they might not be able to handle or deal with effectively. An opportunity is something
that has the potential to benefit a person. A threat is something that has the potential to harm a person.
Stress is a highly personal experience influenced by an individual’s personality, abilities, and
perceptions; what is stressful for one person might not be stressful for another.
Stress can have physiological, psychological, and behavioral consequences. The relationship between
stress and physiological consequences is complicated, and the most serious physiological
consequences (for example, cardiovascular disease and heart attack) result only after considerably
high levels of stress have been experienced for a prolonged period of time. Psychological
consequences of stress include negative feelings, moods, and emotions; negative attitudes; and
burnout. Potential behavioral consequences of stress include job performance, strained interpersonal
relations, absenteeism, and turnover.
Workers who are responsible for helping others sometimes experience burnout. The three key signs
of burnout are feelings of low personal accomplishment, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization.
A certain level of stress is positive in that it can result in high levels of job performance. When stress
levels are excessively high, negative stress is experienced, and performance suffers. Other potential
behavioral consequences of high stress include strained interpersonal relations, absenteeism, and
turnover.
Potential stresses can arise from workers’ personal lives, job responsibilities, membership in work
groups and organizations, and work-life linkages. Stresses from workers’ personal lives include major
and minor life events. Job-related stresses include role conflict, role ambiguity, overload, under-load,
challenging assignments, and promotions, and conditions that impact workers’ economic well-being.
Group- and organization-related stresses include misunderstandings, conflicts and interpersonal
disagreements, uncomfortable working conditions, and dangerous or unsafe working conditions.
Stresses arising out of work-life linkages result when work roles conflict with people’s personal lives.

Consequences of Stress

Stress shows itself in a number of ways—physiological, psychological, and behavioral symptoms.
1. Physiological symptoms:
• Most of the early concern with stress was directed at physiological symptoms due to the fact
that specialists in the health and medical sciences researched the topic.
• Physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to students of OB.
2. Psychological symptoms:
Job-related stress can cause job-related dissatisfaction.
• Job dissatisfaction is “the simplest and most obvious psychological effect” of stress.
• Multiple and conflicting demands—lack of clarity as to the incumbent’s duties, authority, and
responsibilities—increase stress and dissatisfaction.
• The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and
dissatisfaction.
3. Behavioral symptoms:
• Behaviorally related stress symptoms include changes in productivity, absence, and turnover, as
well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol, rapid speech,
fidgeting, and sleep disorders.
• The stress-performance relationship is shown in Exhibit 19-11.
a. The logic underlying the inverted U is that low to moderate levels of stress stimulate
the body and increase its ability to react.
b. Individuals then often perform their tasks better, more intensely, or more rapidly.
c. But too much stress places unattainable demands or constraints on a person, which
result in lower performance.
d. Even moderate levels of stress can have a negative influence on performance over the
long term as the continued intensity of the stress wears down the individual and saps
his/her energy resources.
• In spite of the popularity and intuitive appeal of the inverted-U model, it doesn’t get a lot of
empirical support.
Recognizing Stress
• Short-term physical symptoms
• Long-term physical symptoms

• Internal symptoms
• Behavioral symptoms
Short-Term Physical Symptoms
• Faster heart beat
• Increased sweating
• Cool skin
• Cold hands and feet
• Feelings of nausea, or 'Butterflies in stomach'
• Rapid Breathing
• Tense Muscles
• Dry Mouth
• A desire to urinate
• Diarrhea
Long-term Physical Symptoms
• Change in appetite
• Frequent colds
• Illnesses such as:
• Asthma
• Back pain
• Digestive problems
• Headaches
• Aches and pains
• Feelings of intense and long-term tiredness
Internal Symptoms
• Worry or anxiety
• Confusion, and an inability to concentrate or make decisions
• Feeling ill
• Feeling out of control or overwhelmed by events
• Mood changes:
–Depression
–Frustration
–Hostility
• Helplessness
• Restlessness
• Being more lethargic
• Difficulty sleeping
• Drinking more alcohol and smoking more
• Changing eating habits
• Relying more on medication
Behavioral Symptoms
• Talking too fast or too loud
• Fiddling and twitching, nail biting, grinding teeth, drumming fingers,
pacing, etc.
• Bad moods
• Being irritable
• Defensiveness

Managing Stress

High or low levels of stress sustained over long periods of time, can lead to reduced employee
performance and, thus, require action by management.
1. Individual approaches:
• Effective individual strategies include implementing time management techniques, increasing
physical exercise, relaxation training, and expanding the social support network.
• Practicing time management principles such as:
a. making daily lists of activities to be accomplished
b. prioritizing activities by importance and urgency
c. scheduling activities according to the priorities set
d. knowing your daily cycle and handling the most demanding parts of your job during
the high part of your cycle when you are most alert and productive
• Noncompetitive physical exercise has long been recommended as a way to deal with excessive
stress levels.
• Individuals can teach themselves to reduce tension through relaxation techniques such as
meditation, hypnosis, and biofeedback.
• Having friends, family, or work colleagues to talk to provides an outlet for excessive stress.
2. Organizational approaches
• Strategies that management might want to consider include:
a. improved personnel selection and job placement
b. use of realistic goal setting, redesigning of jobs
c. training
d. increased employee involvement
e. improved organizational communication
f. establishment of corporate wellness programs
Stress Management
“Stress Management Procedures for helping people cope with or reduce
stress already being experienced”
Stress Prevention
“Focusing on controlling or eliminating stressors that might provoke the
stress response”
Dealing with Long-Term Stress
•Fatigue and exhaustion
–Go to bed earlier
–Take a good break (vacation)
–Change work commitments if possible
–Time management strategies
•Handling depression
–Deep depression is a clinical illness and should be handled professionally
–Otherwise
•Positive thinking
•Talk to people and get support
•Get away from situation causing stress
•Lack of self-confidence
–Set personal goals
–List your shortcomings and deal with them
–List the things that worry you and see if it is really important to worry about them at all.

HUMAN RESOURCE POLICIES AND PRACTICES

Overview

In this lecture, we first discuss the concept of career, career planning and development. Next, we
distinguish between job security and career security. Then, we identify several factors that affect career
planning and discuss both individual and organizational career planning. We next address career paths
and discuss career development, then, career planning and development methods are described. We
devote the last part of the chapter to a discussion of developing unique segments of the workforce.
A. Career
Career can be defined as a general course of action a person chooses to pursue throughout his or her
working life
I. Career planning
Career planning is an ongoing process through which an individual sets career goals and identifies the
means to achieve them. The process by which individuals plan their life’s work is referred to as career
planning. Through career planning, a person evaluates his or her own abilities and interests, considers
alternative career opportunities, establishes career goals, and plans practical developmental activities.
Usually, career planning programs are expected to achieve one or more of the following objectives:
1. More effective development of available talent.
2. Self-appraisal opportunities for employees considering new or nontraditional career paths.
3. More efficient development of human resources within and among divisions and/or geographic
locations.
4. A demonstration of a tangible commitment to EEO and affirmative action.
5. Satisfaction of employees’ personal development needs.
6. Improvement of performance through on-the-job training experiences provided by horizontal
and vertical career moves.
7. Increased employee loyalty and motivation, leading to decreased turnover.
8. A method of determining training and development needs.
􀂃 Individual career planning—Career planning begins with self-understanding. Then,
the person is in a position to establish realistic goals and determine what to do to
achieve these goals. Learning about oneself is referred to as self-assessment. Some
useful tools include a strength/weakness balance sheet and a likes and dislikes survey.
1. Strength/weakness balance sheet: A self-evaluation procedure assists people
in becoming aware of their strengths and weaknesses.
2. Likes and dislikes survey: A procedure that assists individuals in recognizing
restrictions they place on themselves.
􀂃 Career Assessment On The Web—The Web has numerous tests and assessments sites
available to assist job seekers.
􀂃 Organizational Career Planning—The process of establishing career paths within a
firm.
II. Career Paths
Career paths have historically focused on upward mobility within a particular occupation. One of four
types of career paths may be used: traditional, network, lateral, and dual.

a. Traditional Career Path—An employee progresses vertically upward in the
organization from one specific job to the next.
b. Network Career Path—A method of career pathing that contains both a vertical
sequence of jobs and a series of horizontal opportunities.
c. Lateral Skill Path—Traditionally, a career path was viewed as moving upward to
higher levels of management in the organization. The availability of the previous two
options has diminished considerably in recent years. But this does not mean that an
individual has to remain in the same job for life. There are often lateral moves within
the firm that can be taken to allow an employee to become revitalized and find new
challenges.
d. Dual-Career Path— A career-path method, that recognizes that technical specialists
can and should be allowed to continue to contribute their expertise to a company
without having to become managers.
e. Adding Value To Retain Present Job—Regardless of the career path pursued, today’s
workers need to develop a plan whereby they are viewed as continually adding value to
the organization. If employees cannot add value, the company does not need them, and
much of the evolving work environments cannot use them either. Workers must
anticipate what tools will be needed for success in the future and obtain these skills.
These workers must look across company lines to other organizations to determine what
skills are transferable, and then go and get them. Essentially, today’s workers must
manage their own careers as never before.
f. Demotion—Demotions have long been associated with failure, but limited promotional
opportunities in the future and the fast pace of technological change may make them
more legitimate career options.

III. Career Development

A formal approach taken by an organization to help people acquire the skills and experiences needed to
perform current and future jobs is termed as career development. Company’s policies especially policies
regarding promotion, counseling the employees, opportunities to excel in future help employees to
develop their career. Consist of skills, education and experiences as well as behavioral modification and
refinement techniques that allow individuals to work better and add value.
Career development is an ongoing organized and formalized effort that recognizes people as a vital
organizational resource. It differs from training in that it has a wider focus, longer time frame, and
broader scope. The goal of training is improvement in performance; the goal of development is
enrichment and more capable workers.
Recently, career development has come to be seen as a means for meeting both organizational and
employee needs, as opposed to solely meeting the needs of the organization as it had done in the past.
Now, organizations see career development as a way of preventing job burnout, providing career
information to employees, improving the quality of work lives and meeting affirmative action goals.
That is, career development must be seen as a key business strategy if an organization wants to survive
in an increasingly competitive and global business environment.

IV. Career Planning and Development Methods

There are numerous methods for career planning and development. Some currently utilized methods,
most of which are used in various combinations, are discussed next.
a. Discussions with Knowledgeable Individuals—In a formal discussion, the superior
and subordinate may jointly agree on what type of career planning and development
activities are best. In other instances, psychologists and guidance counselors provide
this service. In an academic setting, colleges and universities often provide career

Strengthening Organizational Culture

Embedding Organizational Culture

􀂃 Formal statements of
organizational philosophy,
mission, vision, values,
and materials used for
recruiting, selection and
socialization
􀂃 The design of physical
space, work environments,
and buildings
􀂃 Slogans, language, and
sayings
􀂃 Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching and coaching by managers and
supervisors
􀂃 Explicit rewards, status symbols (e.g., titles), and promotion criteria
􀂃 Stories, legends, and myths about key people and events
􀂃 The organizational activities, processes, or outcomes that leaders pay attention to, measure,
and control
􀂃 Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises
􀂃 The workflow and organizational structure
􀂃 Organizational systems and procedures
􀂃 Organizational goals and the associated criteria used for recruitment, selection,
development, promotion, layoffs, and retirement of people
How to Change a Culture
􀂃 If the culture no longer supports the goals and strategy of an organization, it should be
changed.
􀂃 Mergers and acquisitions generally result in a change in culture.
Requirements for Successfully Changing Organizational Culture
􀂃 Understand the old culture first.
􀂃 Support employees and teams who have ideas for a better culture and are willing to act on
those ideas.
􀂃 Find the most effective subculture in the organization and use it as a model.
􀂃 Help employees and teams do their jobs more effectively.
􀂃 Use the vision of a new culture as a guide for change.
􀂃 Recognize that significant cultural change takes time.

Strategic Change
• Major transformations in the structure, size, or functioning of an organization for the purpose of achieving strategic objectives
• Degree of Change:
– Radical change
• Major adjustments in the
• ways a firm does business
– Incremental change
• Evolution over time
• Many small routine changes Timing of Change
• Reactive Change:
– Responding to changes in the external or internal environment.
• Anticipatory Change:
– Looking for better ways to stay
– Ahead of the competition.
Why People Resist Change
1. Direct Costs/Limited Resources
2. Saving Face/Vested Interests
3. Fear of the Unknown
4. Breaking Traditions/Routines
5. Incongruent Systems
6. Incongruent Team Dynamics
One of the well-documented findings is that organizations and their members resist change. It provides a
degree of stability and predictability to behavior. There is a definite downside to resistance to change. It
hinders adaptation and progress.
Resistance to change does not necessarily surface in standardized ways. Resistance can be overt,
implicit, immediate, or deferred. It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and
immediate.
Implicit resistance efforts are more subtle—loss of loyalty to the organization, loss of motivation to
work, increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism due to “sickness”—and hence more difficult to recognize.

Similarly, deferred actions cloud the link between the source of the resistance and the reaction to it. A
change may produce what appears to be only a minimal reaction at the time it is initiated, but then
resistance surfaces weeks, months, or even years later. Reactions to change can build up and then
explode seemingly totally out of proportion. The resistance was deferred and stockpiled, and what
surfaces is a cumulative response.

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

Resistance to Change

1. One of the well-documented findings is
that organizations and their members
resist change.
􀂃 It provides a degree of stability and
predictability to behavior.
􀂃 There is a definite downside to
resistance to change. It hinders
adaptation and progress.
2. Resistance to change does not necessarily
surface in standardized ways.
􀂃 Resistance can be overt, implicit,
immediate, or deferred.
􀂃 It is easiest for management to deal with resistance when it is overt and immediate.
3. Implicit resistance efforts are more subtle—loss of loyalty to the organization, loss of
motivation to work, increased errors or mistakes, increased absenteeism due to “sickness”—and
hence more difficult to recognize.
4. Similarly, deferred actions cloud the link between the source of the resistance and the reaction
to it.
􀂃 A change may produce what appears to be only a minimal reaction at the time it is
initiated, but then resistance surfaces weeks, months, or even years later.
a. Reactions to change can build up and then explode seemingly totally out of
proportion.
b. The resistance was deferred and stockpiled, and what surfaces is a cumulative
response.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN ORGANIZATIONS

Hiring
• Recruit
• Interview… behavioural questions
• Assessments… job requirements
• Reference Checks… a must… connect to interview results.
• The Offer… put it in writing!
Training
• Soft Skills …
• Hard Skills …
• On the Job…
• Continuous Learning…
Learning and high-performance cultures
• Uncertainty highlights the importance of organizational learning.
• High-performance organizations are designed for organizational learning.
• A learning organization has a culture that values human capital and invigorates learning for
performance enhancement.
Performance Standards
• SMART Objectives:
–Specific
–Measurable
–Achievable
–Realistic
–Time-based
• Connected to the role description
Measuring Performance
• 360° Feedback
• Quality Evaluations
• Internal/External Customer Surveys
• Observation and Self-Assessment
• Remember: be SMART in your evaluation
Day-to-Day Management
• An open, ongoing conversation
• Timely acknowledgement of good work and/or performance deficiencies
• Be available… observe your reports in role… be open to learning and sharing.
• Documentation
Formal Reviews
• Set a schedule and follow it through!
• Be consistent… consider the whole time horizon… be specific.
• Tools: role description, Self-Assessment, draft Supervisory Assessment
• Documentation

The Performance Conversation Purpose:
To exchange information, review standards, discuss outcomes (successes and challenges),
acknowledgement, renew commitment/get agreement, set new objectives
Preparation:
• Allow both parties sufficient time to prepare and reflect

• Conduct a full investigation prior to making any decisions
• Document, document, document
• Talk to the employee in private
• Take nothing for granted
• LISTEN, LISTEN, LISTEN
• Do not make accusations or lay blame
• Focus on the issue and the behavior – not the person
• Determine the cause of the behaviour
Coaching
• Make performance expectations and priorities clear.
• Help employees to solve problems.
• Teach new skills.
• Promote growth and development.
• Give constructive feedback.
• Give ongoing positive recognition.
• Hold employee accountable.
Counselling
• Listen for the real problem.
• Develop a plan to correct problem.
• Help the person consider options.
Rewarding Good Performance
• Recognition & Appreciation
• Job Enlargement / Enrichment
• Project Assignments
• Advancement
• Investment (Compensation, Training)
Correcting Poor Performance
• Describe unsatisfactory performance. Be specific.
• Describe the impact of that performance/behavior (on the organization, coworkers, division
– safety, costs, efficiency, morale).
• Describe expected performance (use SMART objectives).
• Make the employee aware of what the consequences will be if the performance has not
improved.
• Establish the social contract. Ask for commitment.
• Involve the employee where possible in the action plan.
• Offer help and support.
It’s Worth the Investment…
Organizational Benefits… consistent, equitable, early intervention, better morale
Supervisory Benefits… acknowledge good work, nip problems in the bud, team building, and retention
Employee Benefits… individuals and colleagues know that they will be held accountable and are
valuable to the organization.
• HR, Training, Safety
• Document, Document, Document.
EPM Supports Best Practices
• Successful organizations use EPM tools to support alignment and results
• Consistent EPM helps decrease workplace stress and uncertainty
• EPM helps contribute to satisfaction and commitment
• EPM enhances personal accountability

Final Thoughts
“If a group of people is to become a social entity and work (or live) together over time then they must:
Trust one another, demonstrate courage, treat each other with fairness, respect, dignity and love, and be
honest with one another.” - Dr. Ian Macdonald

Performance Management Cycle

• It is a systematic process of
–Planning work and setting expectations
–Continually monitoring performance
–Developing the capacity to perform
–Periodically rating performance in a
summary fashion
–Rewarding good
performance
Planning
• Set Goals
• Establish and communicate elements and standards
Monitoring
• Measure performance
• Provide feedback
• Conduct progress review
Developing
• Address poor performance
• Improve good performance
Rating
• Summarize performance
• Assign the rating of record
Rewarding

• Recognize and reward good performance

Guide to Performance Management

This Guide to Performance Management has been produced and published by the UCSD Human Resources Department. It is intended for anyone who manages the performance of others. Whether you are a first-time work leader or an experienced supervisor, manager, program director or
department chair, this Guide will provide you with useful information and step-bystep guidelines about the performance management process. You are involved in performance management when you:
• establish specific job assignments
• write job descriptions assign responsibility for strategic initiatives develop and
apply performance standards
• discuss job performance with the employee and provide feedback on strengths
and improvements needed
• conduct an annual performance evaluation
• plan for improved performance and employee development goals.
This Guide will help you and those whose performance you manage to plan for results
which will meet or exceed your expectations. You will learn how to work
collaboratively with your employees to:
• identify and describe the employee's essential job functions in support of the
mission of the organization
• identify and define strategic initiatives appropriate to the employee's essential
functions which support the goals of the organization
• develop realistic and appropriate performance standards
• give and receive helpful behavioral feedback about performance
• write and deliver constructive performance evaluations
• plan education and development opportunities to sustain, improve or build on
current performance.
If you have questions, or if you have not managed work performance before, we
recommend that you:
• read the personnel policies and procedures concerning your employees
• contact the Human Resources Generalist for your area at the Medical Center
• consult the Human Resources representative in your campus department
• consult the Employee Relations consultant for your campus department
• Enroll in the performance management-related courses offered by Staff
Education and Development on campus.

Management Information System (MIS)

A management information system (MIS) is a subset of the overall internal controls of a business covering the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures by management accountants to solving business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the organization. Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the group of information management methods tied to the automation or support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert systems, and Executive information systems.